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Images are reproduced on the motion-picture screen
by processes made possible by the reflection of light from the subjects
on the set to the film in the camera. The lighting equipment available
for attaining dramatic and artistic effects is an important factor contributing
to the success of a motion-picture production. Studio set lighting equipment
over the past forty years has been influenced by everchanging factors
such as film characteristics, sound and various production techniques.
Current equipment and considerations for future equipment are discussed.
FROM THE BEGINNING, the
use of artificial light in motion-picture photography has been a compromise
between the engineering efficiency of the equipment and its ability to
arouse artistic and emotional responses for the overall dramatic effect.
 Early
attempts at light control were made with various types of reflectors to
redirect sunlight, scrims to diffuse it, and opaque materials to block
it. Under these conditions adequate motion-picture photography could be
accomplished only when proper sunlight and weather conditions permitted.
As the
industry grew various types of artificial light sources used in street
lighting, theater spotlights, photoengraving, and military searchlights
were adapted for studio use. With this makeshift equipment as a background,
work was started to provide specialized lighting equipment for a motion-picture
industry that began as a novelty and was turning into one of the major
businesses of the nation.
It was
one thing to design lighting equipment which would provide a given amount
of light over a given area at a stated distance, but quite another to
build equipment adaptable to widely varying distances and beam angles.
Motion-picture studio lighting equipment had to be sufficiently rugged
to withstand the normal physical abuse of loading and transporting on
trucks and repeated rigging on sets, notwithstanding size and weight limitations
required by practical portability considerations. It had to be suitable
for use in varying location environments from a hot sandy desert to an
ocean barge or high in snow-covered mountains.
There
were times when engineering and economic requirements brought a demand
for an overall set illumination which would provide adequate negative
film density from exposure anywhere on the set. The results from a dramatic
standpoint were as flat as the lighting. At other times attempts were
made at mechanical or static control of light. For example, when sound
first came into use cameras were concealed inside of bulky, soundproof
booths and by using a number of cameras long-shots, medium-shots and close-ups
were made at the same time. The resulting set lighting for multiple camera
positions was not satisfactory from a dramatic standpoint.
For a
dramatic effect a cameraman may illuminate only a small object and allow
the balance of the set to remain dark. He has learned by experience that
expert balancing of light intensity will allow him to model characters
until the desired quality is obtained. He realizes the image on the retina
of the eye of the theater patron must supply suggestions of depth that
will be interpreted by the brain as being steroscopic. He is working with
an art form; therefore, engineering efficiency ceases to be effective
unless it helps him achieve the artistic end result.
Evolution of Set Lighting Equipment
Throughout
the history of motion picture making, the spectral characteristics of
artificial light sources predominantly in use in any given period of time
have been dictated by the characteristics of the film emulsions then in
use, while the types and configurations of the light sources and the fixtures
in which they were contained were typical of the current state of the
art.
Because
the orthochromatic black-and-white film emulsions used prior to 1927 were
not sensitive to red light, the incandescent tungsten light source, whose
radiant energy emission is largely in the red end of the spectrum, had
only limited use. Early records indicate that the first artificial lighting
equipment for motion pictures consisted of primitive banks of mercury-vapor
tubes suspended above the sets under a glass roof at the original Biograph
studio in New York, in 1905.1 Soon afterwards,
the first arc lamps appeared; these were an adaptation of street-lighting
units typical of the time. White-flame arc "Broadsides," similar to arcs
then used for photoengraving, were introduced at Biograph in 1912. As
the industry grew, many improvements were made in motion-picture lighting
equipment, mainly in carbon arc types; tungsten filament sources continued
to remain in the background due to the restrictions imposed by orthochromatic
film.2
During
1927 and 1928, motion-picture lighting was radically revised by the introduction
of panchromatic black-and-white film which was sensitive to all wavelengths
of radiation from ultraviolet through red, and particularly well matched
to the spectral energy distribution of incandescent tungsten filament
radiation.3,4,5 Extensive tests with the
new film exposed to incandescent tungsten illumination were conducted
by the American Society of Cinematographers under the auspices of the
Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences and the Motion Picture Producers
Association. It was found that the incandescent tungsten lighting system
presented many possibilities of improvement, and that it had definite
advantages over the arc light system.6 New
types of incandescent fixtures were developed and produced in large quantities
during this period.7 From the point of view
of the producer, the incandescent lamp promised to reduce materially the
cost of motion-picture set lighting; it also provided the cameraman with
an additional tool for dramatic effect. The picture Broadway, produced
in 1929, was the first large-scale production photographed entirely with
the newly developed incandescent lighting equipment.
In the
meantime the manufacturers of electrodes for carbon arcs were busy with
the development of carbons which would provide an arc-light source with
a spectral energy distribution compatible with the new panchromatic film.
This resulted in a family of carbons aptly named "Panchromatic" carbons.8,9
However, the arc lamps were bulkier and required more manpower than the
incandescent lamps. Sound followed soon after the advent of panchromatic
film, so the early, somewhat noisy, arc lamps were essentially doomed
in favor of the quiet incandescents. An exception was the occasional use
of high-intensity arc spotlights which were the only available illuminants
having sufficiently intense directional beams for certain dramatic lighting
effects.1
(A bibliography
of articles dealing with studio lighting and its various phases up to
1930 was prepared by the SMPE Studio Lighting Committee of that year.10)
In 1934,
the motion-picture arc lamp was reborn with the introduction of the three-color
Technicolor process requiring relatively high levels of light with a spectral
energy distribution close to that of natural daylight at mid-day.1,11
Flame arc carbons and equipment were produced and used on the sets without
need of filters. High-intensity arc carbons and spotlamps, requiring only
light-straw-colored filtering, came into general use.12
The newly developed arc lamp equipment were sufficiently silent
for use on sound stages. The incandescent tungsten source could no longer
be used for the new color photography unless corrected to daylight color
quality with a blue filter which absorbed about 65% of its output. However,
this did not mean that incandescent lighting had suddenly become obsolete,
for it was still very much in demand on the black-and-white sets.
The two-reel
picture, La Cucaracha, made in 1934, was the first production to be made
with the three-color Technicolor process; it was followed (in 1935) by
Beckey Sharp and Trail of the Lonesome Pine, and in 1936 by Dancing Pirate,
Garden of Allah, Ramona, God's Country and the Woman and A Star is Born.
Fig. 1. Titan Molarc and grid mounted on Molevator and desert dolly.
Fig. 2. Big-Eye Tener Solarspot.
During
this period the Fresnel lens type of focusing spot lamp was developed
for both carbon arc and incandescent tungsten sources.13
These units received universal acceptance primarily because of their extreme
flexibility in producing variable beam angles over a wide range for desired
illumination distribution. They were sometimes used to the exclusion of
all other types of equipment for flood-lighting, back-lighting, cross-lighting,
key-lighting, and modeling.
In 1951,
still another major change in motion-picture lighting was initiated when
Technicolor introduced its low-level three-strip taking negative balanced
for incandescent illumination; The Greatest Show on Earth, made in 1951,
was the first production using this process. Soon afterwards, Eastman
and Ansco tungsten balanced negatives became available, and the big swing
to incandescent lighting as compared to arc lighting was underway on the
color sets.14 Since 1951, all professional
color film used in the motion picture studios has been balanced for exposure
with tungsten illumination.
In the
beginning of this era, only white-flame carbons producing daylight color
quality of light were available for use in the carbon arc lamps, and it
was necessary to filter them to an approximate color match with the incandescent
tungsten lamps so that the two types of equipment could be mixed on a
color set with no filter in the camera. The resulting arc lamp filter
loss was approximately 35%. In 1955, the yellow-flame high-intensity carbon
was made available for the Brute arc. The spectral energy distribution
was balanced for the new color films so that it could be freely used with
only slight filtering when mixed with tungsten sources.15-18
The white-flame
carbon was retained for use as booster light on outdoor locations where
it provides a suitable color match with sunlight. The swing from black-and-white
to color has been steadily increasing over the past several years until
at the present time the bulk of film exposed on the motion-picture sets
is in color. The ratio of color to black-and-white took a pronounced leap
in 1965 when practically all film exposed for television release was in
color. This change has resulted in a substantial increase in the quantities
of lighting units required for motion-picture photography together with
a general shift from lower to higher powered lamps because of the higher
levels of illumination required for color.
The Titan
ultra-high-intensity arc spotlamp, introduced in 1962, burns white-flame
carbons at 350 A or yellow-flame carbons at 300 A (Fig. 1).19,20
As compared to the 225-A Brute, the light output of the Titan is approximately
double, with similar beam distribution characteristics throughout its
focusing range.
Since
the advent of tungsten balanced color film in 1951, large numbers of 10-kW
incandescent spotlamps have been in use. The Big-Eye Tener (Fig. 2) is
the most recent addition to this family.21
Its relatively new 24 3/4 in. diameter Fresnel lens is designed to produce
an exceedingly wide and flat field at the maximum flood focus position.
The Tungsten-Halogen Incandescent Light Source
The
relatively new tungsten-halogen regenerative-cycle light source (commonly
referred to as the quartz-iodine lamp) is a revolutionary type of a tungsten
filament incandescent lamp which is becoming an important adjunct to the
sources currently used in motion-picture lighting equipment.22-24
Its advantages are smaller size, less weight and longer life than a corresponding
conventional incandescent lamp, and nearly perfect maintenance of light
output and color temperature throughout its life.
A great
variety of types of tungsten-halogen sources has been developed and produced.
21,25-27 The first types were the double-ended
tubular lamps with recessed single-contact bases, having either a single
coiled-coil compact-filament or a relatively long thin single coil linear-filament.
At present, these double-ended versions with recessed single contacts,
having power ratings of 1000 W or less, constitute the great majority
of tungsten-halogen light sources available for studio lighting. A linear-filament
1500-W source was added to this group within the past year.
Various
other versions of tungsten-halogen sources have been produced including
double-ended types with rectangular recessed contact bases, single-ended
lamps with two-pin, mini-can, medium prefocus, and medium bipost bases,
together with Par and R jacketed lamps. The highest known wattage rating
of available tungsten-halogen sources is 2000 W in the double-ended, rectangular,
recessed, contact-base type.
The double-ended
linear-filament tungsten-halogen sources are particularly well suited
for application to optics compatible with flood or fill-light types of
photographic fixtures, where the radiation from their long slim filaments
can be efficiently redirected by cylindrical-type reflectors of suitable
contour. Both fixed and variable-beam, broad and doublebroad fixtures,
using the double-ended linear-filament sources are now in use on motion
picture sets.21,26,27 (Figs. 3 and 4). A
family of Softlites (Fig. 5), using these sources, has proven its worth
on motion picture stages and is expected eventually to supersede the Conelites
when a soft near-shadowless fill-light is needed.21,27
 |
Fig. 5. Family of quartz Softlites ranging from 750-W to 4000-W. |
| Fig. 3. Typical 1000-W quartz broad with four-leaf barndoor mounted
on pedestal. |
 |
| Fig. 4. Typical quartz double broad burning two 1000-W globes which
are switched separately. |
A recent addition to this family is an 8000-W Super-Softlite burning eight
separately switched 1000-W globes (Fig.6). Cyc-Strips (Fig. 7), using
500-W, 1000-W, or 1500-W sources, are being used for lighting backings.26,27
The double-ended
tungsten-halogen compact-filament sources have made possible the development
and design of many versions of exceedingly small and light weight reflector
spotlamps, with both fixed and variable beams.21,26,27
(Fig. 8). Their chief advantages are the ability to provide a maximum
amount of light per pound of fixture weight and adaptability to lighting
in close quarters. Fixtures using up to 1000-W sources have been produced.
A New Concept of the Tungsten-Halogen Light Source
Until recently, the filaments of all tungsten-halogen sources have been
in the general form of a single coil, either short and fat as in the compact-filament
versions, or long and thin as in the linear-filament versions. The distribution
pattern of the radiation from a single-coil source is well suited to many
designs of reflector-optical systems; however, the single-coil source
cannot be efficiently utilized in Fresnel-lens focusing-type fixtures.
In March,
1966, the Q750T20/4CL planar filament tungsten-halogen lamp, which can
be used in the Baby Spotlamp Fresnel lens fixture, became available (Fig.
9). Its C-13 multiple-coil filament array is identical with the filament
configuration for which the fixture was originally designed. It has four
times the life, four and one-half times the lumen-hours of light, and
constant light output and color temperature as compared to the conventional
incandescent lamp which it replaces, and with which it is physically and
electrically interchangeable without an adaptor.
Fig. 6. An 8000-W quartz Softlite with eight separately switched 1000-W
globes. |
 |
Fig. 7 Typical quartz cyc-strip using 1000-W globes
|
 |
| Fig. 8. Typical 1000-W variable-beam reflector spotlamp. |
It is expected that a 2000-W planar filament Quartzline lamp will be
available for the Junior spotlamp in the near future, and that higher
wattage planar filament tungsten-halogen sources will follow for use in
the larger Fresnel-lens spotlamps. This development constitutes a most
vital and important contribution to the motion picture industry, not only
because it presents for the first time a tungsten-halogen filament whose
radiation pattern is compatible with the optical requirements for professional
focusing Fresnel lens type of motion-picture lighting spotlamps, but also
because it permits the many advantages of the tungsten-halogen lamp concept
to be utilized in the thousands of existing fixtures currently in use
throughout the industry.
Current Studio-Lighting Equipment and Some Considerations for the
Future
The
photographic lighting workhorses on the motion picture stages continue
to be the familiar Babys, Juniors, Seniors, Teners, Broads, Conelites,
Softlites,
 |
| Fig. 9. General Electric Q750T20/4CL planar filament tungsten halogen
quartzline globe for baby Solarspot lamp. |
Chickencoops, Skypans, etc., in the incandescent type of units, together
with the Type 170, Brute, and Titan carbon arc spotlamps. It is expected
that the tungsten-halogen sources will gradually replace the present conventional
incandescent sources as the state of the art advances and higher wattage
units become available.
It is
predicted that the high-intensity carbon arc spotlamps will continue to
be used on large sets where the maximum amount of directional light is
required from a single source, and for mixing with sunlight on locations.
Evolution Instead of Revolution
The
makers of motion pictures may be likened to artists who paint in oils.
From the beginning, the tools of each art have been improved and modified,
but remain basically the same. If either attempted to paint his pictures
on a production line basis he would surely lose the individuality that
marks the difference between mechanism and art. In motion picture studio
lighting great strides have been made in refining and improving the tools,
but the basic materials that compare with the brushes and pigments of
the artist remain the same.
References and Bibliography
- Peter Mole, "The evolution of arc broadside lighting
equipment," Jour. SMPE, 32: 398-411, Apr. 1939.
- C.W. Handley, "History of motion picture studio lighting,"
Jour. SMPTE, 63: 129-133, Oct. 1954.
- Loyd A. Jones and J. I. Crabtree, "Panchromatic negative
film for motion pictures," Trans. SMPE, No. 27, 131-178, Jan. 1927.
- R. E. Farnum, "The effective application of incandescent
lamps for motion picture photography," Trans. SMPE, 12: No. 34, 464-483,
Apr. 1928.
- C. E. Kenneth Mees, "History of professional black-and-white
film," Jour. SMPTE, 63: 134-137, Oct. 1954.
- Research Committee of American Society of Cinematographers,
"Incandescent tungsten lighting in cinematography," Trans. SMPE, 12:
No. 34, 453-463, Apr. 1928.
- Peter Mole, "The use of incandescent equipment in
motion picture photography," Trans. SMPE, 12: No. 34, 521-534, Apr.
1928.
- E. R. Geib, "Carbons for use with panchromatic film,"
Trans. SMPE, 11: No. 32, 799-800, Sept. 1927.
- D. B. Joy and A. C. Downes, "Characteristic of flame
arcs for studio lighting," Trans. SMPE, 12: No. 34, 502-520, Apr. 1928.
- A. C. Downes, Chairman, Studio Lighting Committee
Report, Jour. SMPE, 15. 716-720, Nov. 1930.
- J. A. Ball, "The Technicolor Process of three-color
cinematography," Jour. SMPE, 25: 127-138, Aug. 1935.
- C. W. Handley, "Lighting for Technicolor motion pictures,"
Jour. SMPE, 25: 423-431, Nov. 1935.
- R. G. Linderman, C. W. Handley and A. Rodgers, "Illumination
in motion picture production," Jour. SMPE, 40: 333-367 June 1943.
- C. W. Handley, Chairman, Progress Committee Report,
Jour. SMPTE, 58. 397-409, May 1952.
- F. P. Holloway, C. A. Plaskett, R. B. Dull and C.
W. Handley, "A 225 ampere motion picture studio carbon for use with
3200-3400 K color film," Jour. SMPTE, 64: 657-659, Dec. 1955.
- Lloyd Thompson, Chairman, Progress Committee Report,
Jour. SMPTE, 65: 247-272, May 1956.
- M. A. Hankins, "Recent developments of super-high-intensity
carbon are lamps," Jour. SMPE, 49: 37-47, July 1947.
- Peter Mole, "The M-R Brute," Am. Cinemat.. 438-439,
Dec. 1946.
- John M. Calhoun, Chairman, Progress Committee Report,
Jour. SMPTE, 72: 359-406, May 1963.
- "Ed Colman uses M-R Titan for lighting," Internat.
Photographer, 36: p. 19, July 1964.
- Richard E. Putman, Chairman, Progress Committee Report,
Jour. SMPTE, 74. 377-427, May 1965.
- C. N. Clark, "Characteristics of incandescent lamps
for theatre stages, television and film studios," Illuminating Eng.,
61: July 1966.
- C. N. Clark, "Characteristics of tungsten-halogen
lamps for stage and studio lighting," paper presented at IES Theatre,
Television and Film Lighting Symposium, held May 9-10, Chicago, 1966;
see also, C. N. Clark and T. F. Neubecker, "Evolution in tungsten lamps
for television and film lighting," Jour. SMPTE, 76: 347-360, Apr. 1967.
- Robert E. Levin and Arnold E. Westlund, "Design parameters
for the use of quartziodine lamps," Jour. SMPTE, 75: 589-593, June 1966.
- John M. Calhoun, Chairman, Progress Committee Report,
Jour. SMPTE, 71: 315-368, May 1962.
- Richard E. Putman, Chairman, Progress Committee Report,
Jour. SMPTE, 73. 369-410, May 1964.
- Richard E. Putman, Chairman, Progress committee report,
Jour. SMPTE 75: 447-494, May 1966.
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