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 Summary.-The
basic principles of motion picture set lighting are outline, and the technic
of "key" lighting, employed by most cinematographers, is discussed. Several
new types of lamps that have found extensive use are described in detail
Technical data regarding them are presented along with information regarding
the application in cinematography.
Any
discussion of motion picture set lighting should be prefaced by acknowledging
the fact that modem lighting is in practice susceptible of almost infinite
variation. One could go into any studio, and, considering the work of
two equally prominent cinematographers, find that although the two undoubtedly
base their technic upon similar principles, use the same tools, and obtain
very similar results upon the screen, their detailed methods as measured
by the quantity of light used, the number of units, and the way in which
the lighting is balanced, would differ greatly.
It is
therefore manifestly impossible to set up a fixed rule and say that, for
a set of given size, so many foot-candles from each direction, making
such and such a total, will be required. Such a formula could be devised,
perhaps; but it would deal simply with illumination not with lighting,
as it is understood and practiced here.
In previous
discussions of the evolution of motion picture lighting it has frequently
been pointed out that the modern lighting technic evolved, bit by bit,
from the very early necessity for a sufficient intensity of illumination
to permit an exposure. It was found, as soon as artificial light-sources
began to supplement the less controllable natural illumination, that projecting
beams of light upon sets and actors from a variety of angles could give
improved effects of depth and roundness to the picture. The development
of lighting from that time has been closely interlocked with the development
of light projectors affording more precise control of these beams. A similarly
important factor has been the introduction from time to time of more highly
sensitive emulsions, permitting a decrease in the overall illumination
level and making more precise control of the intensity and divergence
of light-beams desirable.
This
is very well illustrated by comparing the so-called "general" lighting
of a few years ago with current practice. This phase of lighting, as the
name implies, deals with the maintenance of a definite overall level of
illumination throughout the set. Until relatively recently this was most
generally achieved by means of the so-called "general lighting units"-the
broadside, the "rifle," the multiple unit "bank" and overhead "scoops"
and "strips." The primary function of these units was to establish a uniform
overall flood of light covering a vertical and horizontal spread of sixty
or more degrees. These units, especially the broads and rifles, mounted
upon pedestals on the stage floor, were arranged uniformly in rows on
each side of the camera. Sometimes such lamps would also be positioned
upon the lamp-rails at the tops of the sets. In the case of deep sets
which could not easily be penetrated by the floor units, in instances
where particularly high levels of illumination were desired, as in earlier
color processes and in black-and-white musical revue numbers, additional
general lighting was commonly provided by scoop and strip units suspended
above the set.
This
general lighting provided foundations of even, diffused illumination throughout
the sets, even in the deepest shadows. The necessary intermediate tones
and highlights were built up from this by means of more intense beams
projected by the spotlighting units. Within the past year, however, this
rather characterless overall lighting has been definitely on the way out.
Today, we have reached a point at which it can be said that this kind
of lighting is definitely on the way out. A number of factors have contributed
to the change. For one thing, we have put behind us the early-talkie technic
of using a multiplicity of cameras on every scene; and, through experience,
cinematographers have learned how to light moving-camera shots more normally
than was at first deemed necessary. Second, new materials and still faster
emulsions have made flat foundational lighting more and more unnecessary,
while the development of new and more accurately controllable light-projecting
units has made it easier to light sets with precision.
There
has, moreover, been noticed a new conception of the whole problem of set-lighting.
Not so long ago and especially in the five or six years immediately following
the introduction of sound, which for a time seemed to set cinematography
back immeasurably --a set was to a surprising extent viewed more nearly
as something to be illuminated than as something to be lighted. It had,
in other words, merely to serve as an acceptable background for the characters,
rather than to take its part as an integral part of the composition.
During
the past few years, the concept has changed. It is no longer enough merely
to light the set to give some illusion of depth, and to keep it in accord
with the visual mood of the action. It must now be lighted decoratively,
as an important part of the composition. More than a few of the industry's
outstanding cinematographers have stated that they lavish quite as much
care upon lighting the set itself as upon lighting the star actors.
Several
well recognized means take care of creating the illusions of depth and
roundness. Depth, for instance, is most frequently achieved by contrasting
the illumination of various planes of the scene. A relatively dark foreground
can be more or less silhouetted against a more strongly illuminated middle
plane, beyond which the next plane may be either darker or lighter, and
so on. Generally speaking, the plane in which the object or action of
greatest interest lies will be the most strongly illuminated, since the
more highly keyed lighting concentrates the attention upon that plane.
The
illusion of roundness is achieved by highlighting curved surfaces with
little catch-lights which give to the single eye of the camera something
of the effect they give to normal binocular vision. Modelling flat and
angular surfaces is accomplished by contrasting halftones of light. Protrusions
and indentations in wall areas, for example, are not illuminated flatly,
but in such a manner that there are unobtrusive but still definite shadows
that render the objects in pseudo-relief upon the screen. These effects
are most generally attained with projecting or spotlighting units, mounted
overhead, and usually "crossed"; that is, an object on the left of the
camera will be modelled by a beam striking it angularly from a lamp on
the right of the camera, and vice versa. At times, too, a beam may be
played vertically down the wall of a set from a lamp mounted directly
above upon the lamp-rail. This, however, is being done less and less,
because unless the beam is masked from the wall, the result appears artificial.
Much more frequently the beam will be projected downward from front or
side. In this connection, it may be mentioned that although the majority
of sets are still three-sided, the lamp-rails overhead are in an increasing
number of instances four-sided. Over and above these familiar effects,
set-lighting is more and more frequently employing the artifice of casting
decorative shadow-patterns upon otherwise flat wall areas. Properly executed,
this trick enhances the composition, and adds variety to the otherwise
monotonous flat effect of the prevalent light-walled sets.
The
technic of "key lighting," while it can not wholly be said to have come
into use only during the past few years, has certainly gained in importance
lately. Fundamentally, it refers to the logical angle of lighting sets
directionally; that is, keying the lighting to some logical angle of lighting,
usually suggested by the design of the set. That does not mean that all
the lighting should come from the one direction, but that the predominant
highlights should appear to come from the direction of some source established
by the scene. For example, imagine a set representing a modernistic penthouse.
Let us say that on the left of the camera are broad windows through which
can be seen an expanse of New York's skyline, only slightly occulted by
skyscrapers. In reality, we should expect most of the illumination in
such a room to come from the obvious source-the windows. In a key-lighted
set, the dominant lighting would appear to come from the windows, although
actually it would not. A strong source-light, probably from some unit
like an H. I. arc, would project a clear-cut beam similar to sunlight
through the windows. The primary modelling lighting on both set and actors
would come from angles suggesting the windows as the source. Beneath this
key lighting would still be the vitally necessary secondary modelling
lighting, coming from other angles, giving to the scene depth and roundness
that would not result if all the light came from the key direction.
The
key lighting does not by any means have to be obvious. It is, in fact,
best if it fits unnoticeably into the general scheme of lighting. But
by arranging the lighting to coordinate with a definite key-light, the
cinematographer is able to create effects affording a superior illusion
of actuality. Noticed or not, the effects are more logical and believable.
Effect-lighting may be called an exaggerated development of this technic.
Generally it refers to extreme and unusual lighting, often appearing to
come solely from one source, as from a fireplace, table lamp, or the like.
The
lighting of close-ups is too intricate a subject to be dealt with in detail
at this time. In the first place, it is an intensely individual matter,
varying not only with the technic of the individual cinematographer, but
with the requirements of each player: One player, Marlene Dietrich, for
example, may appear to best advantage under strong key lighting projecting
downward upon her face; another, such as Mae West, may require the softest
of diffuse flat lighting; a third, for example, Irene Dunne, may look
best when her face is softly illuminated by focusing a "baby" spotlight
fitted with a Magenta filter, into her eyes, to enhance their natural
sparkle.
Speaking
broadly, much of this personal lighting which was done only a few years
ago by diffused broadsides or rifles, is now done by the more controllable
beams of spotlights. The new junior Solarspot is a prime favorite for
this service, while the newer 500-watt baby Solarspots are coming into
increasing favor. The even distribution of their Fresnel-type lenses,
together with the greater intensity in comparison with conventional condenser-spotlights,
and the wider range of usable beam divergences when compared with mirror-type
lamps, are winning these units an important place in personal lighting.
In making
moving-camera shots, in which the camera follows the actor about the set,
close-up or medium, it has become very popular to mount a suitable lamp
directly upon the camera-blimp. The"Handilamp" or "Lupe" has been very
popular, and more recently the more precise small Solarspots are being
used extensively for such service.
Individual
dimming devices are being used more and more, so that any given lamp may
be dimmed imperceptibly as a character walks into or across its beam,
and then restored to normal brightness afterward.
Until
the last few months, the foregoing applied chiefly to black and white
cinematography. Due to various limitations, natural color cinematography
was felt to require flatter lighting. Within the past six or eight months,
however, color cinematography has made immense strides toward parity with
monochrome. Great improvements have been made both in negative processing
and in printing methods, which have made it possible to attain better
results with more normally lighted color scenes. At the same time, newer
and more efficient arc spotlighting equipment has been made available
in the H. I. arc and Ultra H. I. arc.
It is
well known that the best results in interior natural-color cinematography
are attained by using light-sources that closely approximates the spectral
distribution of natural daylight. This presupposes arc lighting, although
earlier arcs, in addition to their unsteadiness, often emitted an overly
bluish light. The present high-intensity H. I. arc spotlights, as used
in Technicolor production, have corrected these faults. Careful attention
to the physical and mechanical aspects of the burning of the carbon eliminated
the flicker, and improvements in the carbon itself helped to reduce the
excess of blue and ultraviolet radiation. Today, the H. I. arcs burn almost
as steadily as incandescent lamps, and require only very light straw-colored
gelatin filters for correction to daylight standards. Optically their
construction is similar to that of the Morinc lensed Solarspots; like
them, they afford a photographically satisfactory distribution of light
within the beam at all divergences from 8 to more than 45 degrees.
Accordingly
they are used identically in the way in which Solarspots are used in black-and-white
cinematography. A somewhat higher level of illumination is still required
for color, but it has been considerably reduced of late, and is coming
every day into closer agreement, unit for unit, with black-and-white practice.
The arrangement of the lighting units for color is identical to the arrangement
in black and white practice. The formerly dominant general lighting units
side arcs on the floor and scoops overhead-have virtually vanished, except
from unusually large sets. Speaking conservatively, more than 95 per cent
of the lighting of a Technicolor production is now effected by H. I. arc
spotlighting equipment. The methods and effects are virtually identical
to those in the best monochrome productions. In some respects, it may
be said that color lighting methods and equipment are in advance of those
commonly used for black-and-white, but for economic reasons, rather than
technical. For color, it was necessary to obtain new lighting equipment
throughout for black-andwhite, replacement necessarily has had to be slower,
because a vast supply of usable though obsolescent equipment existed.
As the advantages of the newer technic, which may be called "precision
lighting," become more and more apparent, it will not be very long until
we shall find the old-time concept of set lighting as floodlighting extinct,
and replaced by precision lighting of sets as well as actors with the
more precise tools of modern spotlighting.
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